SmartDust Speech or Presentation Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

SmartDust - Speech or Presentation Example The communication protocol has truly transformed and broadened our horizon. The evolution of SMAR DUST is the development of the century. The technological advent under SMART DUST has facilitated mankind in a manner never imagined before. SMART DUST is not a dust collector, it is control system. This is a system not to control dust, but to control what we want it to. Be it climate forecast, temperature change, vibration upset, computation devices; SMART DUST is service provider for all these monitoring items. Cory Doctorow quoted, "technology is a way of organizing the universe so that man doesn't have to experience it"; truly SMART DUST is the realization of this fact. The monitoring of any surveillance parameter is now possible through SMART DUST. SMART DUST is smart solution for power conservation; reasonable reduction is size and power requirement has been achieved through SMART DUST revolution. The SMART DUST technology is simple solution, it merely comprises of "very compact, autonomous and mobile nodes, each containing one or more sensors, computation and communication capabilities, and a power supply". Mobile networking and systems community has advanced after successful evolution of SMART DUST.

Benthams version of Utilitarianism Essay Example for Free

Benthams version of Utilitarianism Essay Utilitarianism is the ethical theory that shows the reasons for a person choosing to carry out an action it justifies an action being for the greater good. Utilitarianism is a teleological theory which means it looks at the consequences or result of an action to decide whether it is subsequently right or wrong this also makes it a consequentialist theory. The theory of Utilitarianism began with Jeremy Bentham. Benthams theory of Utilitarianism is where actions are judged based upon the pleasure gained in the result. Jeremy Bentham was the man who originally thought of and came up with the idea of Utilitarianism, he believed in the greatest good for the greatest number. There are two types of Utilitarianism; Benthams theory is Act Utilitarianism. Act Utilitarianism is about creating the greatest amount of pleasure in a particular situation through a particular action. Bentham believed and used research to conclude that people would naturally seek pleasure and avoid pain. Nature had placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign masters, pain and pleasure. It is for them alone to point out what we ought to do as well as to determine what we shall do. (Bentham) Bentham truly believed that pleasure was the purest form of good and pain the sole evil; he saw this as moral fact. This is why Bentham is also known as a hedonist. The hedonists were a group of Greek people who sought to find true pleasure; hedone means pleasure in Greek, this group included people such as Plato and Aristotle who agreed that good was found in the greatest happiness. The principle of utility was a way to find out how good or bad an action was, based on its utility (usefulness). An action that creates the most pleasure and the least pain is a useful one and therefore it is good pain v pleasure. For Bentham good, is the maximum amount of pleasure with the minimum amount of pain afflicted and bad, is pain with little pleasure received. Bentham believed that in any situation a person should think of a solution that will lead to the maximum happiness for the maximum of people. For example, if a man with the cure for cancer and a young child were in a car crash, you would assume to save the life of the child as they are considered to be innocent, however with Benthams theory you should do the maximum amount of good for the maximum amount of people, which means you should save the man. By saving the one man you then save thousands, the action of letting the child die is out weighed by the amount of people you have saved if using Benthams theory. However Bentham knew that it would be hard to predict the outcome of every situation and know which route to take and so in order to help, he came up with the hedonic calculus which you can use to work out which option will produce the greatest amount of pleasure. There are seven factors which you must take into account when choosing what to do in a certain situation; the intensity of the pleasure, the duration of the pleasure, how certain pleasure will be the result, how near the pleasure is to you, how continuous is the pleasure, is there likely to be pain mixed with the pleasure and how widespread will the pleasure be. When faced in a dilemma, Bentham believed that you could chose the good option the option which would do the most amount of good and the least amount of pain. For example, if you are in a plane crash and you could only save one person; your wife, your child or a doctor who has the ability to save many. Bentham believes in this situation you must use the hedonic calculus to form a solution to your problem. The doctor could make thousands of lives better and create much more pleasure than if you save the wife or child, however this tough decision would leave you without pleasure. Following Benthams utilitarianism you must save the doctor. When a decision has to be made over a moral situation, the hedonic calculus is used. In using the hedonic calculus the individuals involved should be considered by applying the seven factors to them in relation to the options for the choice of action you have. Utilitarianism has no serious weakness Discuss It is true that Utilitarianism does have many strengths however it does have weaknesses too. Bentham, Mill, Hare and Singers theories each have their own faults. Utilitarianism is very straight forward and easy to understand. It is very natural for a person to consider the outcome and how much pleasure they will gain before going through with an action. It is a principle that aims to bring people happiness this is very appealing for many in societies. Many of the ideas and theories can be related to specific actions and situations and therefore can be helped out in the process of considering what to do in certain places, for example; giving to charity gives happiness to the poor and is good whereas acting cruelly towards someone is bad. The use of Utilitarianism can be carried out universally. Utilitarianism is not dependant on any religion, culture, race or society as it is about a person or groups happiness. This use of utilitarianism is great because it makes people picture and understand other peoples point of view for example; if you were to hit someone then instead of carrying out the action, you would think about the outcome picture yourself in the other persons shoes understand that pain which you would cause and subsequently stop yourself from hurting them. You have to think of other peoples pleasure and pain rather than just your own. This is mainly used in preference utilitarianism as Hare put it standing in someone elses shoes. The fact that Utilitarianism is a consequentialist theory is both good and bad. It is natural for us to weigh up the consequences of an action before carrying it out however it is never going to be easy to always predict the outcome of an action completely right for example; if you go out to steal to help your family survive but then get caught and arrested then you can no longer carry out the good action of helping your family. Utilitarianism may also be argued against because it ignores or seems to ignore the importance of following duties the act itself may be right or wrong for a reason other than the amount of happiness it produces, for example an old friend is on his death bed and asks you to swear that you will give à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½30,000 (all of his money when he dies) to his favourite park he used to visit but on the way to handing over the money you see an advert that says it needs à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½30,000 to save 10,000 people. Out of duty you must give the money to the park however if you are following Utilitarianism your belief is that the money must going into creating the most good/ happiness which would be saving those 10,000 people. W.D Ross believed it was important for you to follow and carry out your duty. Benthams Act utilitarianism although was flexible and relied on the consequences it had no defence for minorities for example; one slave being treated badly but creating happiness for a whole family would be thought of as right. Also it is very impractical having to calculate using the hedonic calculus every decision we make. There is also a difficulty defining what pleasure is for example; a paedophiles pleasure is very different to another persons. Mills Rule utilitarianism is very practical and sets about certain rules for society that must be maintained which can help societies to operate. However there are weaknesses to rule utilitarianism too again there is no defence for minorities or any help at what defines happiness but also this time if you are following rules you could end up obeying them even when more happiness can be created by disobeying them.

Comparing Hap by Thomas Hardy and The Second Coming by Yeats Essay

Comparing Hap by Thomas Hardy and The Second Coming by Yeats      Ã‚   Thomas Hardy (1840-1928) was one of the great writers of the Late Victorian era. One of his great works out of the many that he produced was his poem Hap, which he wrote in 1866, but did not publish until 1898 in his collection of poems called Wessex Poems. This poem seems to typify the sense of alienation that he and other writers were experiencing at the time, as they "saw their times as marked by accelerating social and technological change and by the burden of a worldwide empire" (Longman p. 2165). The poem also reveals Hardy's own "abiding sense of a universe ruled by a blind or hostile fate, a world whose landscapes are etched with traces of the fleeting stories of their inhabitants" (Longman p. 2254).    The poem's major theme seems to be this sense of the world being ruled by a hostile and blind fate, not by a benevolent God pushing all of the buttons. This is clearly stated within the poem itself as Hardy writes "If but some vengeful god would call to me / From up the sky, and laugh: 'Thou suffering thing, / Know that thy sorrow is my ecstasy, / That thy love's loss is my hate's profiting!' / Then would I bear it, clench myself, and die, / Steeled by the sense of ire unmerited; / Half-eased in that a Powerfuller than I / Had willed and meted me the tears I shed. / But not so." (Hardy, Longman p. 2255: ll. 1-9). As you can see, this poem shows that Hardy has indeed lost all faith in a benevolent God that deals out suffering and joy to his creations as he willfully deems they deserve and need. Instead of this idea of a benevolent God up above pulling all of the strings of the world and dealing out everyone's personal fate, Hardy believes fate is... ...and present as a sign that the 'Beast' is about to be born and rule the next 2000 years just like Jesus was born and resurrected to rule the last 2000 years, while Hardy just relates the evils and pain that is inflicted on man as a sign that there is no benevolent God, but not that there is an evil God staking his claim to our lives now enstead. He leaves our fate up to mere chance and the passage of time, while Yeats leaves our fate up to the beast (also known as Satan).    Works Cited Bressler, Charles E. Literary Criticism. New Jersey. Prentice Hall, 1999. Damrosch, David, et al., ed.   The Longman Anthology of British Literature: Vol. B.   Compact ed.   New York: Longman - Addison Wesley Longman, 2000. Yeats, William, Butler. "The Second Coming." The Longman Anthology British Literature. Ed. David Damrosch. Longman. New York. 2000. 2329.   

Crew Resource Management and Aviation Safety Essay -- Essays Papers Fl

Abstract Throughout the history of aviation, accidents have and will continue to occur. With the introduction of larger and more complex aircraft, the number of humans required to operate these complex machines has increased as well as, some say, the probability of human error. There are studies upon studies of aircraft accidents and incidents resulting from breakdowns in crew coordination and, more specifically, crew communication. These topics are the driving force behind crew resource management. This paper will attempt to present the concept of crew resource management (CRM) and its impact on aviation safety in modern commercial and military aviation. The concept is not a new one, but is continually evolving and can even include non-human elements such as computer-controlled limitations on aircraft maneuvers and the conflicts that result in the airline industry. Crew Resource Management and Aviation Safety Since the birth of aviation, man has been tasked with operating aircraft safely, yet effectively. From the beginning days of being able to simply operate an aircraft without injury for seconds at a time, to today's issues with safety in supersonic international travel, crew resource management has been with us in some from the beginning. The term "CRM" began to spread in the 1980's among the major airlines, fueled by industry and university research into human factors. The U.S. military has also taken a very active in the development of CRM techniques to aid in the high stress environment of military aviation. The basic concept of crew resource management (CRM) is to train crewmembers to use all available personnel, equipment, and experience to safely and effectively operate an aircraft. It is used in nearly every facet of aviation from the smallest regional airline, to the largest major carrier, to the various crew operated military aircraft. One aspect of aviation missing from the fold is the general aviation (GA) community, such as the private pilot. This has become a growing concern as many future air carrier pilots and military pilots begin as private pilots. The need for CRM training in this area is there, but the training seems excessive and useless to many in the field as most of these pilots operate single pilot aircraft. Perhaps this attitude comes from the term "crew" and is dismissed by the ... ... problem are under constant development and analysis, in a hope to avoid these situations. The civilian industry continues to lead in development due to commercialization, with the military not far behind. The only real deficiency in CRM program development seems to be the area of general aviation as described earlier. Until this problem is addressed, there will still be a glaring weakness in the general area of aviation safety. However, with the rate of technology increase and cheaper methods of instruction, we should begin to see this problem addressed in the near future. Until then, aviation will rely on civil commercial aviation the military to continue research and program development for the years to come, hopefully resulting in an increasingly safe method of travel and recreation. References Hawkins, Frank H. (1987). Human Factors in Flight, 2nd ed., 35, 36. Santiago, Marco Jr. (1996). Application of Crew Resource Management and Line Oriented Flight Training Concepts to General Aviation Flight Training. Arizona State University. Simmon, David A. (1998). Boeing 757 CFIT Accident at Cali, Columbia, Becomes Focus of Lessons Learned. Flight Safety Digest.

Mammon Winery

Mammon Winery, Inc is a wine company established by a man with the name Dionysus Mammon, Sr (Mann and Roberts).   He was an immigrant from Greece who came to the United States in 1930 (Mann and Roberts). Mammon Sr. founded the company on a line of non-varietal jug wines (Mann and Roberts).   Mammon Winery, Inc. found its strong hold in the market with this specialty line.   Later, having finished a degree in enology, the study of wine making, Dionysus Jr. would join his father in the company. Dionysus jr. began his wine making crusade by convincing his father to branch out and explore other options within the wine making industry (Mann and Roberts).   This new line of exploration was in the form of premium varietal wines.   However, in order to be successful in this venture, they needed a large increase of capital for purchasing the necessary vineyards (Mann and Roberts).   Reluctantly, Dionysus Sr. took the company public and secured the required funds (Mann and Roberts).   Forty percent of Mammon Winery Inc. became owned by the public (Mann and Roberts).   For the first time, â€Å"outsiders† sat in on the board of directors (Mann and Roberts). The issue most concerning Dionysus Sr. in regards to Mammon Winery, Inc. was how to present this new line of premium varietals.   To use the Mammon Winery corporate name or to not, was the big debate over the labeling of the bottles (Mann and Roberts).  Ã‚   When changing the look and scope of a particular line, using the corporate company name could be detrimental to the initial successful production of wines.   Dionysus Jr.’s want to use a different name just as Canadaigua, Gallo, and Mogen David had done, was not an out of the ordinary proposal. It offers protection to the Mammon Winery Inc. from the consumers of the other line attaching the â€Å"lower class† taste to the whole company (Mann and Roberts).   Another issue is that Dionysus Jr. wanted to change the size of the wine to a pint rather than leave it in traditional wine bottle form (Mann and Roberts).   The idea was that the easier to carry bottle would be more appealing to those in the middle to low economic class.   It would make the new line of production more marketable for the pensioners on a fixed income.   Dionysus Jr. was taking the company into a new area in which it could offer a product to the average consumer even if they were not big on drinking wine. Mammon Winery, Inc. proposed to enter a new wine market for lower-end wines, which is due to the increase in unit sales in the fortified wine market. This is an attempt to enter the cheap wine market and cash in on profits that come along with it. The proposal has a target demographic of middle-to-lower class, or pensioners on a fixed income (Mann & Roberts). In order for Mammon Winery, Inc to come from the bottom of the barrel to the crà ¨me of the crop replies heavily on several key fundamentals. The winery needs to identify and analyze the important issues of how can they capitalize on producing a cost efficient product that is entered into a market that is rising, and who is their chief demographic. Mammon Winery, Inc plans to introduce a low-end wine product that is made cheaply and sold by the pint (Mann & Roberts). It is recommended that the product to be sold by the pint to lower the cost, both for the company and consumer. It is planned to use rejected grapes from Mammon’s premium selection and the filling of their unused capacity is expected. In addition, it is noted that any grape is suitable and can insulate the company from bad grape years (Mann & Roberts). Mammon chooses to use less advertising, which will cut cost, and use wine gurus to entice consumers to their product. The chief demographic is individuals on a fixed income – middle-to-low class. On the other hand, it was reported that a competitor’s lower-end product hit it big with the â€Å"yuppie† crowd of England (Mann & Roberts). The individuals with fixed incomes will find this product appealing and convenient. Mammon Winery, Inc. will sell the cheap sugary wine at eighteen percent alcohol to retailers. They indicate that the projected audience is the perpetually intoxicated and further indicated that it is against the law to sell alcoholic beverages to the intoxicated but state it is not their problem and cannot control what the retailer chooses to do (Mann & Roberts). Mammon Winery, Inc. knowingly sold their product to a target audience of â€Å"winos† and chose to take advantage of the consumer by offering a much more affordable, cheap wine. This can be easily compared to the tobacco companies choosing a target demographic of individuals of non-smoking age by making their product appealing (Mann & Roberts). For instance, both companies are holding back valuable information from the customer. Both products by both companies are addictive and can cause serious health issue, but still these companies greatly affect the target audience one way or another. This is because it pays or at least promises to pay (Sullivan 2001). A company may gain something, or may keep from losing something by selling to their target audience or unethically holding back information that may turn away consumers. However, the profit motive holds in both cases. It is noted by Mammon Winery, Inc. that profit margins would be at least ten percent higher on the lower-end product then their other lines (Mann & Roberts). Therefore, the company’s urge to branch out in the wine industry by offering a new product is nothing beyond regular business practices.   However, their intentional marketing of the product to those suffering from alcoholism or the homeless is an underhanded technique.   They run into an ethical conflict as they must now combat their marketing techniques with significant contributions to charities. These charities though, must also be chosen for a reason.   Just as the tobacco industry chooses specific charities for good-will projects, so too will Mammon Winery, Inc.   Mammon Winery, Inc. will also have to construct both a label and bottle that will effectively promote their new line.   However, the targeted audience should not be able to be determined based upon its looks.   The price will be adjusted for the targeted consumer, but beyond that, it should not be obvious in its aim.   Therefore, the expansion of Mammon Winery Inc. is within reasonable business practices but will have to carefully combat its stated aim at a particular consumer with clever charitable contributions. Works Cited Mann, Richard A. and Roberts, Barry S. â€Å"Mammon Winery, Inc.† Sullivan, Evelin. The Concise Book of Lying. 2001   

School Levies essays

School Levies essays Most of you may think that school levies are a good thing. Pay a little more in taxes to help out the local school. It sounds like a great thing but there is a slight misconception about the school levies that most people dont bother to think about. Every so often, a new levy is introduced for the people to vote on. Some of those people think that the levy is a good deal. Their extra taxes goes to the extra-curricular activities at the school. Most of them have probably voted on another levy before and what they dont know is that the previous levy is still in effect. They are still paying taxes on it. The levy they will vote on in the future is an add-on to the one in the past. Each levy raises taxes just a little bit. Under one percent more. This seems like a small amount but add it onto the past levies and it can sum up to a lot of money. If your property is worth about $100,000, a one percent property tax is worth $1,000. Thats only one house. How much could the school spend on sports? The coaches salary and the bus for away games are about it. The players even have to spend money for equipment too. The school got by before with the money they obtain, why cant they go on without so much more. What is costing more money to the point that the school needs more or they threaten to take away all extra-curricular activities, including sports? What did they do before to keep these activities going? They should be able to do it again. When a levy is passed, all of the people in the area have this small increase on their taxes. How many students out of eight hundred actually play sports? The athletes of our school dont usually play only one sport. They know that they have to stay in shape for the next season so they play others. Lets say theres fifty football players. Not all of them will play basketball but some will. Then there are some people that didnt play f ...

Imagecreatetruecolor() PHP Function

Imagecreatetruecolor() PHP Function The imagecreatetruecolor() function is used in PHP to create a new true color image using the GD Library. True color uses a 24-bit color depth when displaying an RGB image. Its two parameters are the width and height of the image you are creating. Sample Code Using Imagecreatetruecolor() Function This code generates a PNG image that is 130 pixels wide by 50 pixels high. The imagecreatetruecolor() function specifies a shape that is 130 pixels wide by 50 pixels high. The text color is set using RGB values. The text that will print on the shape is A Simple Text String, in size 1 (of 1-5) with an x ordinate of 5 and a y-ordinate of 5. Return Values When successful, this function returns an image identifier that represents a black image of the specified size. If not successful, it returns False. Considerations The GD library must be enabled for this function to work properly; otherwise, the return value is False. It can be downloaded free from the internet if you dont already have it installed. Imagecreatetruecolor() vs. Imagecreate() Function Although the imagecreate() function still works in PHP, the PHP manual recommends the use of the newer imagecreatetruecolor() function, which creates images with many more colorsmakes color transparency possibleallows advanced image processes

Black Chemists - African American History

Black Chemists - African American History Black scientists, engineers, and inventors have made important contributions to the science of chemistry. Learn about black chemists and chemical engineers and their projects. The focus is on African American chemists in the 19th and 21st centuries. Key Takeaways: Black Chemists African Americans have made significant contributions to the fields of chemistry and chemical engineering through research and inventions.In the 21st century, black scientists, engineers, and inventors continue to innovate. However, in the 19th and 20th century, it was much harder for their work to get recognized. Patricia Bath - (USA) In 1988, Patricia Bath invented the Cataract Laser Probe, a device that painlessly removes cataracts. Prior to this invention, cataracts were surgically removed. Patricia Bath founded the American Institute for the Prevention of Blindness. George Washington Carver - (1864-1943) George Washington Carver was an agricultural chemist who discovered industrial uses for crop plants such as sweet potatoes, peanuts and soybeans. He developed methods for improving soil. Carver recognized that legumes return nitrates to the soil. His work led to crop rotation. Carver was born a slave in Missouri. He struggled to gain an education, eventually graduating from what was to become Iowa State University. He joined the faculty of Tuskegee Institute in Alabama in 1986. Tuskegee is where he performed his famous experiments. Marie Daly - (1921–2003) In 1947, Marie Daly became the first African American woman to earn a Ph.D. in chemistry. The majority of her career was spent as a college professor. In addition to her research, she developed programs to attract and aid minority students in medical and graduate school. Mae Jemison - (Born 1956) Mae Jemison is a retired medical doctor and American astronaut. In 1992, she became the first black woman in space. She holds a degree in chemical engineering from Stanford and a degree in medicine from Cornell. She remains very active in science and technology. Percy Julian - (1899-1975) Percy Julian developed the anti-glaucoma drug physostigmine. Dr. Julian was born in Montgomery, Alabama, but educational opportunities for African Americans were limited in the South at that time, so he received his undergraduate degree from DePauw University in Greencastle, Indiana. His research was conducted at DePauw University. Samuel Massie Jr. - (Died May 9, 2005) In 1966, Massie became the first black professor at the U.S. Naval Academy, making him the first black to teach full-time at any US military academy. Massie received a masters degree in chemistry from Fisk University and a doctorate in organic chemistry from Iowa State University. Massie was a professor of chemistry at the Naval Academy, became the chairman of the department of chemistry and co-founded the Black Studies program. Garrett Morgan - Garrett Morgan is responsible for several inventions. Garret Morgan was born in Paris, Kentucky in 1877. His first invention was a hair straightening solution. October 13, 1914 he patented a Breathing Device which was the first gas mask. The patent described a hood attached to a long tube that had an opening for air and a second tube with a valve that allowed air to be exhaled. On November 20, 1923, Morgan patented the first traffic signal in the U.S. He later patented the traffic signal in England and Canada. Morgan invented the zig-zag stitching attachment for manual sewing machines. Norbert Rillieux - (1806-1894) Norbert Rillieux invented a revolutionary new process for refining sugar. Rillieux’s most famous invention was a multiple effect evaporator, which harnessed steam energy from boiling sugarcane juice, greatly reducing refining costs. One of Rillieuxs patents was initially declined because it was believed he was a slave and therefore not a US citizen. However, Rillieux was free. Charles Richard Drew - (1904-1950) Drew is called the Father of the Blood Bank. As a surgeon, he pioneered research into the use and preservation of blood and plasma in World War II. His techniques for blood storage were adapted by the American Red Cross. St. Elmo Brady - (1884-1966) Brady was the first African American to receive a Ph.D. in chemistry in the United States. He earned his degree in 1912 from the University of Illinois. After receiving his degree, Brady became a professor. He taught chemistry at historically black universities. Henry Aaron Hill - (1915-1979) Hill became the first African American president of the American Chemical Society in 1977. In addition to numerous accomplishments as a researcher, Hill founded Riverside Research Laboratories, which specialized in polymers.

Theoretical framework Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Theoretical framework - Research Paper Example There are three key theories that seek to explain business ethics. The stockholder theory expounds on the fact that businesses are only obligated to earn profits for their stakeholders and are not necessarily indebted to the wider society (Shafritz, Ott and Jang, 2005). This theory holds the premise that a company is only morally obligated to fulfill the expectations of the people who invest in it. The social contract theory, on the other hand, which is another business social theory, stipulates that all companies function under a tacitly understood contract with the community they are established in. Business decisions are often affected by the social theory that is supported a company. For instance, if a small company was approached with a buyout offer by a larger organization that is known for its unethical practices, the stakeholder theory would support its consideration of how its stakeholders would gain from its agreement to this contract (Shafritz, Ott, and Jang, 2005). Howeve r, the social contract theory would call for the consideration of how the bigger companies operations would affect the entire community. Business Economic Theories Business economic theories seek to explain how businesses function in local and international financial systems. The business cycles theory holds that during a business cycle course, an economy develops, reaches a definite peak, and then experiences a downturn which is then followed by a recession prior to beginning another upturn. Another business economic theory, the "under-consumption" theory, holds that an excessive amount of income is directed to the wealthier classes instead of being channeled into investments that will create more opportunities for the disenfranchised groups in society (Shafritz, Ott and Jang, 2005). This can result in social instability. Business Educational Theories Business education management theories are basically the foundation of any operational and productive businesses, and seek to explai n how the organizations of different eras have been organized. The classical management theory is a theory that seeks to explain the best way for employees to execute their responsibilities. It is divided into the classic administrative and classical scientific branches. The classical scientific division mainly has to do with scientific mindset of boosting productivity (Shafritz, Ott, and Jang, 2005). Later management theories which moved from concentrating on the division of tasks to the issues that affect employees, were based on concepts such as those espoused by Abraham Maslow; who theorized that all workers possess a hierarchy of needs that needs to be acknowledged and catered to so that they can experience satisfaction with their lives. The Japanese scholar, Dr. William Ouchi, would create the Japanese Management Style which supports Maslow’s hierarchy in its assertion that even though it is natural for employees to want to work, all jobs should be created with the aim of keeping workers happy by means of fulfilling their psychological needs. Business Leadership Theories In business organizations, good managers will inspire their workers and assist them to realize their personal as well as professional objectives. Business leaders accomplish this by using various leadership theories. The trait theory holds that leaders who have characteristics such as openness, intelligence, self-efficacy, adjustment

Aviation Law Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Aviation Law - Case Study Example A brief study of the various kinds of infringements of the rules and the supposed remedial measures or punishments for each help determine which rules Jack has infringed upon and understand the punishment he is liable for the same. Understanding of the severity of the infringements and a closer look at Jack's reasons and situations which have led to the supposed infringements by him help in a more detailed analysis and recommendations to Jack for facing the trial which would sure follow. Although the Jack has managed to avoid any serious accident or damage, it is still a case of serious infringement to a certain extent. Even the psychological conditions have to be taken into consideration as Jack had been awake all night and had been allowed to hire the aircraft without being strict in adherence to the rules before taking off. There exists provisions of the Air Navigation Order (ANO) with Regulations like The Rules of the Air Regulations, The Air Navigation (General) Regulations, the Air Navigation (Cosmic Radiation) (Keeping of Records) Regulations, the Air Navigation (Dangerous Goods) Regulations and a number of permanent Air Navigation (Restriction of Flying) Regulations made under the Order. These Regulations are it also contains the provisions of the Civil Aviation Authority Regulations. These basic categories of regulations and their ... The organizational bodies and their regulations are considered in detail which helps to identify the list of probable infringements Jack could face. The different regulations by the ANO that are framed are all concerned with each detail of aviation transportation, both civil and military aviation. The basic need for organized way of conducting the activity and ensuring safety of man and machine is kept in mind to formulate these rules. The provisions for flying and the orders or rules for the aircraft include the rule for pilots to comply with Air Navigation Order, Air Navigation General Rules and Rules of the Air. The Rules of the Air Regulations of 1991 specifies the regulations based on the context for interpretation of the same. These are categorized into general, visual flight rules, instrument flight rules, aerodrome flight rules, special and general flight rules, visual and aural signals and lights and signals to be shown by the aircraft (Statutory Instrument, 2000). Further, the authorizations and documents required, emergency drills, local regulations and accident reporting are also laid down (Bowman, 2007). According to Articles 3 to 7 of ANO, an aircraft should be registered by CAA in the United Kingdom and contain the trademark of the aircraft and country. Articles 8 to 24 and 95 of CAA like Certificate of Maintenance Review, Equipment of aircraft, and Radio equipment of aircraft require that any aircraft be checked for flight conditions before and after flying. All pilots are required to comply with all the regulations of the provisions of the ANO. Articles 26 and 28 to 37 lay the rules for validation of licences, personal flying log book, the pilot's

How does the western model of Internet Banking apply to Russia Dissertation

How does the western model of Internet Banking apply to Russia - Dissertation Example This chapter of the study will therefore spell out the most important aspects of tasks that the researcher put in place as part of data collection. As much as area of the research such as the literature review holds a prospect for answering most of the research questions and by extension achieve some of the research objectives, undertaking primary data collection remains a very useful way of testing secondary data used for the study (Riketta, 2008). This is because with primary data collection, the researcher is offered the opportunity of collecting first hand data that is not distorted or biased. The chapter shall open with the research philosophy that the researcher employed for the primary data collection. This is because the research philosophy will give the reader a general overview of the perspective from which the researcher conducts the remaining parts of primary data collection, whether inductively or deductively. There shall also be other aspects of the chapter such as rese arch design, qualitative design, research strategy, research scope, as well as data quality issues. By the close of the chapter therefore, the reader will have a vivid understanding of the entire approach that involved the conduct of the research. 3.1 Research Philosophy Saunders et al (2003) notes the research philosophy reflects the perception that the researcher holds about how knowledge is constructed. This is common with qualitative research of this nature because in qualitative research, the researcher seeks to explore knowledge about an ongoing situation, of which the research is being conducted (Ainin, Lim and Wee, 2005). In the current study, the ongoing situation can easily be referred to as internet banking in Russia and how this is influenced by western model of internet banking

When and why does credibility become an issue in criminal cases Essay

When and why does credibility become an issue in criminal cases - Essay Example Different people have different credibility and therefore the experts involved in the case will determine extend or the trustworthiness of a witness. The witness to be approved for credibility can be approached from different ways. One is that the person may be approached by an individual expert who will determine the trustworthiness of the person. The other one and the most effective one is whereby a group of experts approach a witness to determine the trustworthiness of his evidence. When the source of information is credible it becomes easy and firmer to make decisions. Some general characteristics of a credible person are unselfish, caring, fair, experienced, qualified and trustworthy. People who are charismatic become more than credible since they are extroverted, composed and also sociable. It is not always guaranteed that an expert will be competent with witness. If he becomes competent depending on the context then it will be quick and accurate to make fair decisions. There a re different aspects of life which require credibility. These vary from marketing to other things like criminal cases. In criminal cases credibility has become one such aspect which sees to it that there is fair judgment in all what happens in the process of the cases. One aspect which is very important to get from the witness is credibility. There are many things which may influence a person’s credibility and they vary from one person to another. Things that influence a person’s credibility Social influence This occurs when external factors intervene and change or control you. This may be in effect to your thoughts, feelings or actions which will be affected extrinsically by people. Social influence takes into consideration many forms like socialization, peer pressure, obedience, persuasion and even leadership. This is technically and widely discussed in social psychology. A person may be influenced socially due to the minority influence. This happens when the majorit y is influenced to accept the beliefs of the person in the case or the group. This mostly happens through informational social influence. When many people take a certain direction then it is psychological that you will be confronted to take the same direction. Many will always feel that the majority group is the right one and they will therefore act in favor of the majority leading to poor credibility (Garvev, 2003). Also when the group acting is perprating and consistent, then this may influence your credibility. The stronger the social influence then the more it will affect your personal credibility. Despite this you can take your own personal stand and believe by what you know, saw or were involved in rather than relying on what you hear from other people. You can also use your own understanding of a situation or a given scenario to extent your credibility. Therefore credibility should be effective when it is internalized rather than externalized (Foot, 1973). Personal stand Your personal stand plays a key role in determining your trustworthiness in a given scenario. You should have your own personal stand rather than the group or majority stand. This may be achieved by believing in what you know and doing thorough research. You ought to follow some rules like I know because I know. A personal stand if publicized may have a lot of impact on your credibility (Brain, 2011). Behavior One of the things that may make control of your credibility is behavior. Your behavior will be determined more by obedience. Human beings will always behave differently in

Microeconomics Research Proposal Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words - 1

Microeconomics - Research Proposal Example Microeconomics covers a rather broad area: demand and supply, indifference curve analysis, elasticity of supply and demand, production and cost, marginal analysis, market structure, pricing, and so on. This study will attempt to deal with the area of market structure which is very interesting because of its pervasiveness in our lives: Perfect competition, monopoly, monopolistic competition, and oligopoly. An understanding of market structure is essential not only for economists but also for individual businessmen and corporations, for it will help them greatly in dealing with numerous problems encountered in the competitive arena of business. The four major market structures often discussed by economists are perfect competition, which is production by numerous firms with identical/homogeneous products as well as the presence of conditions of free entry and exit; monopoly, which is production by a single firm; monopolistic competition, which is production by many firms with somewhat different or differentiated products; and oligopoly, which is production by several firms. Perfect competition is the ideal market condition envisioned by the great economist Adam Smith, and is often studied first because it is the easiest to understand and it can serve as starting point as well as a gauge by which to measure the performance of the other market structures. The demand curve of a perfectly competitive firm is horizontal because its output is but a small part of total production and it cannot affect the price. The conditions for perfect competition are: a) a large number of small firms and customers, b) homogeneity of product, c) freedom of entry and exit, and d) perfect information about available products and their prices. Many farming and fishing industries closely approximate perfect competition. At the other end of the spectrum is the

When and why does credibility become an issue in criminal cases Essay

When and why does credibility become an issue in criminal cases - Essay Example Different people have different credibility and therefore the experts involved in the case will determine extend or the trustworthiness of a witness. The witness to be approved for credibility can be approached from different ways. One is that the person may be approached by an individual expert who will determine the trustworthiness of the person. The other one and the most effective one is whereby a group of experts approach a witness to determine the trustworthiness of his evidence. When the source of information is credible it becomes easy and firmer to make decisions. Some general characteristics of a credible person are unselfish, caring, fair, experienced, qualified and trustworthy. People who are charismatic become more than credible since they are extroverted, composed and also sociable. It is not always guaranteed that an expert will be competent with witness. If he becomes competent depending on the context then it will be quick and accurate to make fair decisions. There a re different aspects of life which require credibility. These vary from marketing to other things like criminal cases. In criminal cases credibility has become one such aspect which sees to it that there is fair judgment in all what happens in the process of the cases. One aspect which is very important to get from the witness is credibility. There are many things which may influence a person’s credibility and they vary from one person to another. Things that influence a person’s credibility Social influence This occurs when external factors intervene and change or control you. This may be in effect to your thoughts, feelings or actions which will be affected extrinsically by people. Social influence takes into consideration many forms like socialization, peer pressure, obedience, persuasion and even leadership. This is technically and widely discussed in social psychology. A person may be influenced socially due to the minority influence. This happens when the majorit y is influenced to accept the beliefs of the person in the case or the group. This mostly happens through informational social influence. When many people take a certain direction then it is psychological that you will be confronted to take the same direction. Many will always feel that the majority group is the right one and they will therefore act in favor of the majority leading to poor credibility (Garvev, 2003). Also when the group acting is perprating and consistent, then this may influence your credibility. The stronger the social influence then the more it will affect your personal credibility. Despite this you can take your own personal stand and believe by what you know, saw or were involved in rather than relying on what you hear from other people. You can also use your own understanding of a situation or a given scenario to extent your credibility. Therefore credibility should be effective when it is internalized rather than externalized (Foot, 1973). Personal stand Your personal stand plays a key role in determining your trustworthiness in a given scenario. You should have your own personal stand rather than the group or majority stand. This may be achieved by believing in what you know and doing thorough research. You ought to follow some rules like I know because I know. A personal stand if publicized may have a lot of impact on your credibility (Brain, 2011). Behavior One of the things that may make control of your credibility is behavior. Your behavior will be determined more by obedience. Human beings will always behave differently in

Normative approach and positive approach Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Normative approach and positive approach - Essay Example Among various source of income, business needs to maintain everyday transactions, this are known as accounting methods. Accounting theory can be defined as the study, which helps to examine the methodologies of the assumptions, with their frame work in financial accounting principles. By the study on accounting theory helps to understand the review the historical foundations of the accounting practises and the way by which the verification on accounting practises is made and report to the relating regulatory framework which governs the financial statement and also the financial reporting (Evans, 2009, p.67). We also can say that a set of concepts which are interrelated, or descriptions or intensions which help to create a reasonable analysis on the incidents by identifying the relations among the variables that can be described as accounting theory. There is no single proper theory in financial accounting which may govern the process of accounting accurately (Belkaoui, 2004 p.125). T here are differences in approaches, opinions, and values in accounting practise. In the year 2005 Deegan and Unerman stated that to understand the accounting theory a proper methodology is needed to justify the process (Most, 1977, p.56). Nowadays both economics as well as businesses are continuously evolving. Accounting theory is also changing with business and economy. ... For the development of accounting theory several approaches have been made within the last two decades, among which are descriptive, normative, positive, decision making, empirical and welfare ones. However here we concentrate on positive approach and normative approach. Normative theory A normative theory can be defined as a theory, which does not depend on observations, but on the process by which it should be done. According to most of the researchers several different approaches are used in this theory to find a correct opinion about accounting. The formula is used in this method to find out the value what income is based on and not depend on cost. Here the opinions of the theorists are depending upon deductive logic, subjective opinion and inductive methods. On base upon this theory all the other theories are standardized. The other theories tend to give conclusion that some of the accounting rules are better or worse than the others. The normative theories generally depend upon the anecdotal evidence which may not pass the test of academic rigor (Porwal, 2001, p.245). On depending on the personal outlooks, consequent reasoning, and by using of elementary reasoning it aims to approve that there are several accounting practices which are better than others. It helps to understand what ought to be rather than what it actually is. In the part of theory construction the normative approach is likely to depend on the future related answer rather than on its present. That is like here we can find the answer of â€Å"what should be† rather than â€Å"what it is†. According to this theory, the theories will be more feasible and desirable, which does not depend upon the current

Management of the Cash Position Essay Example for Free

Management of the Cash Position Essay Not only do these managers often have difficulty in comprehending sophisticated forecasting techniques, but the cash flows of their companies are usually dependent upon fewer customers and a smaller number of product lines than those of their larger competitors. Thus the cash flow pattern of the small firm is typically too unstable over time and the available data describing it too limited for reliable forecasting. The small business is subject to still other constraints, apart from those applicable to all firms, which tend to restrict the use of even relatively simple cash management techniques. Small firms, for example, are normally unable to afford the division of talent available to larger companies in the form of highly educated financial managers. Many small firms, struggling hard just to remain solvent and earn a fair return, suffer further from lack of recognition that a cash management problem even exists. Once a problem is discovered the manager may lack knowledge of the methods available for a viable solution. A solution which requires more manpower or expenditures than can be covered out of normal cash flow is Dr. Grablowsky is assistant professor and rhairman of the Department of Finance at Oid Dominion University. He has published articles in the JSBM, the Journal of Financial Education, and the Journal of Behavioral Economics. Prior to his entry into education. Dr. Grablowsky was with the Department of Cost, Planning, Systems, and Analysis at the Monsanto Co., World Head, quarters, St. Louis.  typically rejected by the small business. This article will present the results of a survey of small-business cashmanagement practices and compare these methods with techniques commonly employed by larger corporations. Small businesses are defined in this study as firms with annual sales under $5 million. Data for this study were collected by means of a mail questionnaire distributed to two hundred firms selected randomly, within the various business classifications, from classified advertisements appearing in the telephone directories of the Greater Norfolk-Portsmouth SMSA and the  Hampton-Newport News SMSA. The firms were selected in five different distribution levels, with annual sales varying from under $50,000 up to $5 million. The firms in the survey operated at from one to thirteen locations and employed up to three hundred persons, although more than half had fewer than ten employees. Of the two hundred businesses selected for study, 66, or 30 percent, responded. A breakdown of the respondent firms by industry and size is given in Table 1. The Cash Budget It was hypothesized that few of the firms with sales under a million dollars would prepare cash budgets; in fact, only 30 percent of all firms in the sample did so. Several interesting relationships were noted in this regard. One was that the newer firms 1 For an example of this situation see B. J. Grablowsky, Management of Accounts Receivable by Small Businesses, Journal of Small Business Management, Vol. 14, No. 4, October, 1976, pp. 26-27. 5 According to E. Donaldson, J. Pfahl, and P. MuUins, Corporate Finance (New York: The Ronald Press Co., 1975), pp. 22-23, this would include, based on average sales per company, over 86 percent of all firms in the U,S. budgets, the larger ones updated their budgets more frequently than the others. One of the reasons for the more frequent update was that none of the largest firms made more than a thirtyday cash forecast while the smaller ones normally made budgets for up to a year. This last finding is in agreement with the results of other studies showing that few firms with  sales under $3 million make sales forecasts, whereas virtually all firms with sales over $10 million prepare one or more projections for various planning periods. As the firm grows, cash budgeting becomes more essential. Of the firms that prepared cash budgets, an annual planning period was the most common, although some also used weekly, monthly and quarterly budgets. No company made a cash budget for more than one year. The frequency of updating the budgets was well distributed over weekly, semimonthly, monthly, quarterly, and annual intervals. Another question asked whether or not the firms cash balances were being handled in the most effective and efficient manner. Of the 67 firms sampled, forty-eight replied that they felt they were efficiently utilizing their cash balances, but, of these, only eleven regularly prepared cash budgets. The assumption by the 37 firms that did not prepare cash budgets that they were efficient in the use of their cash balances is certainly made in ignorance. Conversely, of the remaining 56 firms that did not preoare cash budgets twenty-three replied, and probably rightly so, that they were not using their cash balances in the most 3 See Orgler. Cash Management, pp. 4-13, for a discusFion of factors affecting the time horizon for cash budgets. Aso see: Keith Smith. Management of Working Capital (St. Paul, Minn.: West Publishing Co., 1974), pp. 35-49, for a survey of the practices of large businesses. Soldofsky and Olive, Financial Management, p. 559. were more likely to prepare budgets than t heir longer-established competitors. A possible explanation lies in the higher educational attainments of the owner-managers of the newer firms. This characteristic, together with the attitudes of the owners toward budgeting, is believed to be a major determinant of the efficiency with which financial planning is handled in the small firm. The d^ta also showed that, somewhat contrary to expectations, in the size categories which included the largest and the smallest firms (i.e., those with less than $50,000 and those with between $1  million and $5 million in sales) a smaller percentage prepared cash budgets than in the other groups. This result was expected for the smallest firms but quite unexpected for large ones. On the other hand, of the firms that prepared cash  effective manner. This realization alone should have provided impetus to the managements concerned to investigate the need and advantages for cash budgeting—yet they still failed to prepare the budgets which could have improved their cash flow performance. The managers of these firms recognized that they had a problem—the need for more efficient cash management—yet they failed to take the proper steps to solve it. These same firms tended to take fewer of their allowed trade discounts than others, suggesting that because they did not forecast cash flows they found it necessary to resort to expensive sources of financing such as foregoing discounts. Cash Collection  actions that they could take themselves. Although only about half of the respondents had even heard of lock boxes or concentration banking, more than one-third did use one or both of these methods for reducing float time. Generally, the respondents reasoned that they could not justify expending the time and money required to reduce float, because such action would not (in their opinion) materially improve the cash position or the profits of the firm. As with many other decisions confronting small businesses, this one was usually made with inadequate information or investigation. The principal reason, again, was the lack of human resources and expertise available to the small firm. Wholesalers, because of the regional or national nature of their sales, were the most frequent users of these techniques. Businesses with a local sales orientation, such as service establishments and retail stores, were much less likely to use any method to improve cash collections.

Uk Legal System And Compare

Uk Legal System And Compare United Kingdom and Northern Ireland consist of four countries which form three distinctive jurisdictions each of which has its own court system and legal profession. These three jurisdictions are England Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland. The union of Great Britain and Ireland established United Kingdom in 1801, and it attains its present form in 1922 with the partition of Ireland and thus the independent Irish Free State has been established. In 1973 UK joined the European Economic Community, which is the European Union, when it is required to integrate the European legislation into UK law and to become responsive to the jurisdiction of the European Court of Justice in issues of European Union. A significant constitutional transformation came into existence when the Labour government came into power in 1997. They straight away introduced a process of decentralization, i.e. decentralizing some areas of government to the constituent countries of the UK: separate Scottish Parliament and a Welsh Assembly were established. The European Convention of Human Rights which has UK as its participant and it is been integrated into UK law, in the same year the Human Rights act was passed i.e. 1998. Thus provisions of Conventions can be directly applied to the UK courts. Actually there is no written constitution for the country. The Queen is the head of the state, even though the ultimate power of the Crown is conceded by the government of the day. The legislature is a two-tier parliament. A count of 659 Members of Parliament makes the House of Commons, by a general election that comes across every 5 years with a simple majority vote. The Government has the power to call for an election at any time, but to make the electoral advantage secure they do these voting every 5 years. The constitutional law of the UK is considered as consisting of statue law on the one hand case law on other, whereas the judicial model is applied in the courts by judges deducing statue law. The third element includes constitutional conventions which do not consist of legislative power but how ever has an obligatory force [1]. Constitutional Reform The Labour government now introduced constitutional alterations in 3 distinct areas: the transformation of the House of Lords, devolution, and the passing of the Human Rights Act 1998. The reformation of the House of Lords was really a long process, by eradicating the voting rights of all the aristocrats who remains until the house is totally altered. Proposals that were put forward by the Royal Commission on the reformation of House of Lords were published in 2000 as a command paper: A House for the Future (Cm 4534) [2] along with government proposals put down in The House of Lords: Completing the Reform (Cm 5291) [3]. The Human Rights Act was passed in 1998, integrating into the UK law rights and freedoms assures by the European Conventions on Human Rights. Even though the UK had been a participant to the European Conventions on Human Rights since 1951, this act gives the provisions of the conventions to be integrated into the domestic law. This makes it clear that the concern of the human rights affects every part of the government. Some of the effects of decentralization were: The Department for Constitutional Affairs (DCA) was launched in 2003, and it swaps the Lord Chancellors Department. Its changed responsibilities such as holding and administering the judicial system, human rights, and electoral and constitutional reform. DCA administers the Court Service and watch over judicial appointments. The responsibility of Lord Chancellor has been modified, with the possessor renamed Secretary of State for Constitutional Affairs and Lord Chancellor, resigns his functions as Speaker of the House of Lords and as a judge. These changes are mainly brought in by the Constitutional Reform Act 2005 and it also made important changes to the courts and the judiciary. The Court System Civil courts Civil cases initially are heard in the County Courts actually its for minor claims or the high Court, which is divided into 3 divisions: Queens Bench, Family and Chancery. Cases can be appealed to the Court of Appeal. Cases may also be appealed from the County Court to the High Court. The structure of the UK courts is shown below [4] . The majority of civil actions are heard in the 218 county courts, which also handles family and bankruptcy hearings. The value of claim decides in which manner the case has to be dealt with. The work is handled by three divisions, depending on its subject: Chancery Division: equity, trusts, tax, bankruptcy Queens Bench Division: contract, tort, commercial matters Family Division: divorce, children, probate. House of Lords is the supreme court of appeal. The judicial functions are quite different from its legislative work and the cases are heard by around 13 senior judges known as Lords of Appeal in Ordinary, or Law Lords. The Constitutional Reformation Act 2005 endow with the establishment of a supreme court to reinstate the judicial functions of the House of Lords with an independent appointment system, thus making a constitutional division between legislature and the judiciary. Judicial Committee of the Privacy Council is responsible for hearing cases from the British overseas territories and dependencies as well as domestic appeals. Cases regarding powers and functions of the devolved legislatures are also heard in these courts. Along with these courts there are also specialized tribunals, which take into account different appeals on decisions made by several public bodies and Government departments like employment, immigration, social security, tax and land. Criminal courts Criminal cases initially are heard at the Magistrates Court, serious ones being heard in the Crown Court. Appeals are mainly heard in the Court Of Appeal Criminal Division [5]. The Crown Court and Magistrates Court can be replaced by a cohesive Criminal Court with 3 divisions: Crown Division now the Crown Court to hear jurisdiction over all criminal matters and the more serious offences allocated to it, the District Division, comprise of a judge usually a District Judge or Recorder and at least 2 magistrates, to hear the jurisdiction over a mid range and in case of serious issues merit up to 2 years custody and the Magistrates Division comprised by a District Judge or Magistrates are to work out their present jurisdiction. The Magistrates Division would assign cases according to the significance of the suspected offence and the situation of the defendant. In the affair of an argument, a District Judge would determine the matter after hearing the version of prosecution and the defendant. The defendant has no right of selection of any of the division. LEGAL SYSTEMS The United Kingdom has 3 legal systems for its 3 separate jurisdictions; English Law for England Wales, Northern Ireland follows some common law principles and finally Scots Law for Scotland. England Wales English Law English law, which refers to the legal system administered by the courts of England Wales for both civil and criminal matters. English law has its own distinctive legal canon, separate from civil law [6] (civil law in which the sources known as reliable are legislation mainly codification in the constitution that are passed by the government and also the custom.) [7]. Actually the laws are not made a part of an organized system and also the laws are developed by judges in the court. Earlier times the justices and the judges were in charge if adapting the Writ system for the everyday needs to for building up a consistent law [8]. For e.g., the Law Merchant began in the Pie Powder Courts. When the Parliament developed in its capacity and focus to the canon of separation of powers, the legislation overtook the judicial law making. Senior Courts of England and Wales consist of Court of Appeal, the High Court of Justice and the Crown Court. The Supreme Court is the highest court for both criminal and civil appeal cases in England Wales and also Northern Ireland. English Law became one of the two legal systems in different parts of UK and also greatly influenced by Scots Law after the Acts of Union in the year 1707 [9] particularly in the development and incorporation of law merchant by Lord Mansfield and also with the development of law of Negligence. Northern Ireland Common Law The law of Northern Ireland is a common law system. It is managed by the courts of Northern Ireland, with The law of Northern Ireland is a common law system. It is administered by the courts of Northern Ireland, with supreme appeal to the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom in both civil and criminal matters. The countrys law is almost similar to the English Law with some of the rules of common law being transferred to the Kingdom of Ireland. The basis for the law of Northern Ireland is English Common Law and Statute Law. Scotland Scots Law Scots law is an inimitable legal system with an origin from Roman law. It also characterizes elements of common law with some feudal sources. This shows that Scotland has varied or mixed legal system compared to South Africa and to a certain extent it has codified systems of Louisiana and Quebec. The Acts of Union has shared legislature with the rest of the UK. In those days Scotland, England Wales each has separate or distinct legal systems, but the Union act brought some English influence on Scots law. Later on the Scots law was also affected by both European laws under the Treaty of Rome and with the Establishment of Scottish Parliament. Court of Session, for the civil cases and the High Court of Justiciary for criminal cases are the chief courts. The Supreme Court of the United Kingdom functions as the ultimate court of appeal for civil cases under Scots Law. Sheriff courts deals with most of the civil and criminal cases including criminal trials with a jury known as sheriff solemn court with a sheriff and no jury which is known as sheriff summary court. UK Legislatures United Kingdom Parliament The Parliament of United Kingdom is two- tier consisting of an upper house i.e. the House of Lords and a lower house i.e. the House of Commons. The House of Lords comprise of two types of members: the Lords Spiritual, he is the senior bishops of the Church of England and the Lords Temporal. The House of Common is an elected chamber democratically. These two houses gather in separate chambers in the Palace of Westminster in the City of Westminster in London. All government ministers including the Prime Minister are members of either the House of Commons or House of Lords [10]. Northern Ireland Assembly The Northern Ireland Assembly is the decentralized legislature of Northern Ireland. It has got the authority to enact in broad areas that are not overtly reserved to the Parliament of the United Kingdom, and appointed the Northern Ireland Executive. It is situated at Parliament Buildings at Stormont in Belfast. The latest embodiment of the Assembly was established under the Good Friday Agreement a commitment by all parties for exclusively peaceful and democratic means of 1998[11] . The Assembly is a unicameral democratically elected body consisting of 108 members who are known as Members of Legislative Assembly, or MLAs. Scottish Parliament The Scottish parliament is located in the Holy rood area of the capital Edinburgh. Unofficially the Parliament is referred to as Holy rood, the Parliament consists of 129 members who are democratically elected, and they are also called Members of Scottish Parliament or MSPs. The members of the Parliament are elected for four year terms under the Additional Member System of proportional representation an attempt to ensure that the outcome of the election reflects the proportion of support gained by each competing group [12]. The original Parliament of Scotland or also known as Estates of Scotland was the national legislature of the independent Kingdom of Scotland, and it existed till the 13th century until the Kingdom of Scotland merged with Kingdom of England under the Acts of Union 1707 to figure the Kingdom of Britain. As a result the Parliament of Scotland unites with Parliament of England to form Parliament of Great Britain, which is situated at Westminster in London. WORKING OF UK LEGAL SYSTEM England Wales Criminal law Criminal law or penal law, its a body of rules that describes the behaviour which is considered illegal because it is believed to threaten, harm or otherwise imperil the safety and welfare of the public. The law is actually insisted by the state itself and the one who breaks these laws are prosecuted in court. Capital punishment is obligatory in some jurisdiction for almost all serious crimes, physical or corporal punishments are also imposed such as whipping or caning [13]. Individuals are also enslaved in prison or in jail depending upon the jurisdiction. Length of imprisonment may vary from day to life. House arrest or fines are also imposed on the convicts who done the crime. The main objectives of this law by punishment are retribution, deterrence, incapacitation, rehabilitation and restitution. Some of the selected criminal laws are fatal offenses [14], personal offenses, property offenses, participatory offenses, mala in se v. mala prohibit a. Civil Law Civil law deals mostly the disputes between the individuals or corporate bodies and swathe a large array of areas which includes: landlord and tenant disputes, insolvency, small claims, consumer disputes, personal injury claims, divorce cases, race, sex and disability discrimination cases, debt problems wills and libel. [15]According to this law it is important that there should be 50 percent probability that the defendant is responsible for dispute. In both these cases the prosecution and the defence try to convince the court that one side is right and other is wrong. In criminal cases, the jury decides whether the prosecution or the defence are guilty and the final decision of sentence is issued by the judge himself. But in the case of civil and family cases the judges alone decides or announces who is the convict based on the evidences presented. In England and Wales prisoners are assigned different security classes when they are sentenced. The categories of prisoners in descending order are: Category A: prisoners whose escape would be highly dangerous to the public or national security. Category B: prisoners, whom which do not require maximum security, but the escape needs to be made very difficult. Category C: prisoners who cannot be trusted in open conditions but who are improbable to escape. Category D: prisoners who can be quite trusted that they dont try to escape, and are given the privilege of an open prison. Northern Ireland The countrys legal system is almost similar to England Wales [16]. The Lord Chancellor is responsible for court administration through the Northern Ireland Court Service. It deals with the policy and legislation concerning criminal law, the police and the prison system. Criminal law Criminal law is mainly concerned with establishing and upholding social order and protecting the community. The rules of this law are meant to persuade and keep up an orderly and safe living for every citizen. If anyone is found at fault they can be fined, given a community penalty or may be sent to a prison. Civil law Civil law is almost similar to the law of England and Wales i.e. cases must be verified by the balance of probabilities rather than the beyond reasonable doubt which is applied in criminal cases. Scotland The Scottish Executive Justice Department manages the issues regarding civil and criminal law. The Parliament makes or passes laws on those issues on which where it has the right to act independently, in such situation it can change or discards the acts of UK Parliament and it can passes new and separate legislation for Scotland. Scots Law The Scots Law and Scottish Legal system has a protracted history, which dates back to the medieval period. The uprightness and independence of Scots law were accredited in the 1707 Act of Union which eliminates the Scottish Parliament and forms a new UK Parliament at Westminster. Scots Law carves up many of the legislative provisions with the law of England and Wales [17], even though the Scots Civil Law remains significantly based on Scots Common Law. Scots Civil Law has some elements which got basis from the Roman Dutch Law. INDIAN LEGAL SYSTEM The Government of India, formally known as the Union Government (Central Government) and was found by the Constitution of India and it is the governing power of a union of 28 states and 7 union territories, collectively called the Republic of India. It is situated in New Delhi, the capital of India. The Indian Government Consist of 3 branches: the executive, the legislative, and the judiciary. The Executive branch is headed by the President of Country who is known as the head of the state and he implements his powers through officers under him or directly. The Legislative branch or the Parliament has two houses: lower house called the Lok Sabha[18], and the upper house called the Rajya Sabha. The Judicial branch has the Supreme Court at its top level, 21 high courts and number of civil criminal family courts at the district level. The civil and criminal laws governing the citizens of the country are governed by the parliamentary legislation such as the Civil Procedure Code, the Indian Penal Code and the Criminal Procedure Code. The legal system applied to the federal and individual state governments is based on the English Common (laws which are developed by the judges on the basis of decision of court and similar tribunals rather than by the legislative statues)[19] and Statutory Law (law that is made by the legislature and codified or written in code books) [20]. [21]India has a Parliamentary system of government which is largely based on that of the United Kingdom i.e. the Westminster System[22] (A democratic system of government which was modelled after that of UK and it is followed in many of the Common wealth nations such as Canada, Australia, Singapore, Jamaica, Ireland, New Zealand India.) The legislature of the country is Parliament. Its two-tier system, with two houses: Lok Sabha in which the 545 members are directly elected called House of the People also known as lower house, Rajya Sabha in which the 250 members are indirectly elected called Council of States also known as upper house. Council of Ministers as well as the Prime Minister is the members of the Parliament, if they are not members then they should be elected within a period of six months from the time they take up their respective positions. Individual responsibility Every individual minister takes care of the specific bureau or bureaus. He is supposed to answer any act of failure in all the policies relating to his ministry. In case any slip up, he himself is responsible to the Parliament. If a vote of no confidence vote or motion in a legislative body censuring an aspect of or indicating a lack of majority support for a government policy [23] is passed against a the minister then he is forced to resign from his position, in such situation the Prime Minister can ask for resignation of the minister to save his government and the people have say. Collective Responsibility The prime Minister and the Council of Ministers together are answerable to the Lok Sabha. So if there is a policy failure from the governments part members of the council are responsible. In such situation if a vote of no confidence is passed then all the ministers headed by the Prime minister have to resign from their position. Judicial System The Supreme Court in India is the eventual exponent of the constitution and the laws of the country [24]. It has appellate jurisdiction over all civil and criminal events involving substantial matter concerning the explanation of the constitution. The court has the unique and exclusive jurisdiction to determine the arguments between the central government and one or more states and union territories as well as between states and union territories. The Supreme Court has a broad or ample flexible powers to hear special appeals on any matter from any court expect those of armed services. It is also known as court of records and oversees every high court. Twenty five associate justices and one chief justice serve on the Supreme Court. Chief justice is appointed by the President, the associated judges are also appointed by the President after consulting with Chief justice. The appointments do not require Parliaments accord, and the justices cannot be removed from their position until they reach the binding retirement age 65. The Supreme Court has power to decide cases under [25]. Original jurisdiction Argument between central government and government of one or more states. Argument between central government and the governments of one or more states on one side and the governments of one or more states on other side. Argument between two or more states. Appellate jurisdiction: Supreme court is the final court of appeal. An appeal against the high court can be filed in the supreme court. If any of the parties is not satisfied with the decision of the high court appeals can be brought to constituitional, criminal and civil cases. Advisory jurisdiction: President may ask for the advice of the Supreme court on any matter of public importance. Features of Indian Legal System Written Constitution Constitution is generally a written document and affirms India to be a sovereign, socialist, secular, democratic republic and it represents the reservoir of enormous power. The Indian Constitution is an inimitable mix of rigidity and flexibility and it is a political document and also known as Bag of Borrowings [26] which mete out the power of the state amongst different structures i.e. between central and state government. Indian government is democratic and republican and is governmental through adult authorization. The Rule of law The term Rule of Law is derived from French phrase la principe de legalite (The principle of legality), that means a government based on the principles of law and not of men. According to ancient scriptures, Law is the King of Kings and there is nothing higher than law. The rule of law contains 3 principles [27]. Supremacy of Law: This means that no man is punishable or can legally be made to bear in body or goods expect for a discrete violation of law launched in an ordinary legal manner. It means that a man can be penalized for the violation of law but cannot be penalized for any other things. A suspected offence is supposed to be attested before the ordinary courts in harmony with the ordinary procedure Equality before Law: This means that no man is above the law. Every citizen whatever his position focuses on the ordinary law of the land and agreeable to the jurisdiction of the ordinary tribunals. Predominance of Legal Spirit: This means that general principles of the constitution are the result of judicial decisions for determining the file rights of private person in association with the cases brought to the court. Independence of Judiciary It is a principle that the judiciary should be politically defended from governmental and the exclusive power, this means that the court should not be exposed to culpable influence from other sections of government or personal interest [28]. One way to prop up judicial independence is by giving life term or long term for judges, which allows them to decide cases and make laws according to the rule of law and judicial discretion. Overview of Indian Court Structure The exclusive feature of Indian constitution is its judiciary. Single incorporated system of courts manages both union and state laws. The Supreme Court of India The Supreme Court of India is the highest court of the land. It is the vital explainer and protector of the constitution and the laws of the land. It is the highest court of petition or appeal. It takes up request against judgments of the regional high courts. The Supreme Court of India consists of Chief Justice of India and 30 other judges who are appointed by the president. High Courts High court is head of each states judicial administration. There are around 21 high courts for Indias 28 states, 6 union territories and one national capital territory. These courts have a power over a state, a union territory or a group of states and union territories. As the part of the judicial system the high courts are officially free of state legislatures and executives. Each high court within the country is a court of record for implementing original and appellate jurisdiction inside a state or territory. It also issues proper writs in cases regarding constitutionally assured fundamental rights. The high court controls or over sees all courts within its jurisdiction, expect for which deals with armed forces and can transfer constitutional cases to it from the lower courts. The said court have original jurisdiction on revenue matters. They under take original criminal cases by a jury, but not civil cases. According to article 141 of the Constitution of India all courts in the l and including high court are bound by the orders of Supreme Court. High courts are controlled by the chief justice. Judges of high court are appointed by the president of India after consulting with the Chief Justice and the governor of the state. Lower Courts High court has the power of supervising the lower courts within its jurisdiction namely the district and session courts and their lower courts [29]. The district and the session courts consist of the lowest level of courts and are also known as trial courts and it applies both federal and state laws. States are divided into districts and inside each district a district judge and sessions judge heads the judiciary. A district judge is in charge of all civil cases and sessions judge over the criminal cases. State Governor after consulting with the states high court appoints these judges. Civil cases are filed in Munsif courts, also known as sub district courts. Lesser criminal cases are handed over to the subordinate magistrates working under the high court. Village level disputes are mostly resolved by Panchayats or Lok adalats. Executive The President of India is the Head of the State and the Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces [29]. He is elected by the democratic board composed of members of both the Houses of Parliament and the legislatures of the nations constituent states. The President holds the position for 5 years and he can be re elected. The president does not normally implements any constitutional powers on his own inventiveness. But these are done based on the instruction given by the Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers. The Prime Minister is appointed by the President, who is chosen by the legislators of the political parties. President then appoints other ministers on after consulting with the Prime Minister. Prime Minister can remain in office only when he or she enjoys the majority support from the Parliament. The Vice President is elected by the members of both the houses the lower and the upper houses of Parliament. The Vice President takes the power of President in case of death or resignation of the current President. Indian legal system is mostly based on the English common law and statutory law, and most of the state and the territorial law are based on English common law. Indias dedication to law is created in the constitution which made India into a sovereign democratic republic, which contains a federal system with law-making form of government in the union and the states. The main resources of law in India are the Constitution, statutes, customary law and case law. Parliament, state legislatures and Union Territory legislatures endorse the statutes. In addition to that there is a huge body of laws known as subordinate legislation in that form of rules regulations made by central and state governments and local authorities like municipal corporations, municipalities, Gram Panchayats and other local bodies. Subordinate legislation is made under the authority s assigned either by the parliament or state or union territory legislatures. The official publications of laws of India are recorded in major parliamentary legislation such as the India Code. Indian laws stick on to the United Nations guidelines on human rights laws and the environmental law. .

Love is Beautiful in Julius Caesar Essay -- Julius Caesar

The word love has thousands of meaning but in the end it can mean only one thing. Now over the years the word love had totally lost it’s meaning, but that’s not important to this essay. We are looking back at a time when love was a word that you didn’t throw around. When love still had meaning. When togas were still in style.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The word love is repeated in many forms throughout the play Julius Caesar. Unlike the way that we use it today, this word had different meanings. Someone saying it did not usually mean sexual feelings towards another, but it meant friendship in its own sick and twisted way. In all seriousness though, this word truly meant something back then. So that is what we’ll be looking at today, the multiple meanings of the word that is love. Grab your togas and join the fun!   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ok first we will be looking into act one. For those of you who didn’t read or just plain forgot what happened here it is in a nutshell. Ok Caesar just killed Pompay and is the over-all ruler of Rome. Some people do not like this and begin to conspire to kill Caesar. Easy enough, right? We see the word love many times in this act but lets check out the basics. Cassius says, â€Å"were I a common laughter or did use to stale with ordinary oaths my live to every new protestor† (line 73, Act I, scene II). What he is saying here is that he loves the people willing to protest the rule of Caesar. Now this isn’t â€Å"oh I love you marry me now† typ...

David Gutersons Snow Falling on a Race Essay examples -- Racism Japan

David Guterson's Snow Falling on a Race The novel Snow Falling on Cedars, written by David Guterson, is about the events that occurred during Pearl Harbor. The novel focuses on the trials and tribulations that the Japanese race had to deal with in America. During the war there were many American concentration camps that held Japanese and Japanese-Americans. The novel is about a Japanese man who is on trial for a murder that he did not commit. The novel exploits all of the fallacies of Japanese treatment, which nearly led to the conviction of an innocent man. The man in the novel was nearly convicted for the sole reason that he was Japanese, and because he was of Japanese lineage he never had a chance for a fair trial. During World War II there was a great deal of racial tension between white Americans and Japanese. During this time there were many Japanese families that had migrated to the West Coast of the United States. Before the war there was slight tension towards Japanese people, but during and after the war the tension greatly increased. There was nothing negative about the majority of the Japanese people, the only problem was that the United States citizens and the government were unsure where the Japanese people took a stance as far as the war. One publication stated, â€Å"They are merely a group of American residents who happen to have Japanese ancestors and who happened to be living in a potential combat zone shortly after the outbreak of war† (Seattle). Most Japanese passively handled the treatment they received from the government. There were only a few racially based cases made against the United States government. Because of the war between the United States and Japan, many people on the West Coast... ...beautiful green growth, and when the United States fell upon the Japanese people, the growth of their race was set back for many years. Works Cited Guterson, David. Snow Falling on Cedars. New York: Vintage Books, 1995 "Jap Farm Land is Transferred." The San Francisco News 3 April, 1942. 15 April, 2002 <http://www.sfmuseum.org/hist8/land2.html>. "Olson Wants All Japs Moved." The San Francisco News 6 March, 1942. 15 April, 2002 <http://www.sfmuseum.org/hist8/evac3.html>. Roosevelt, Franklin D. "Executive Order 9066 - Japanese American Internment Order.". 19 February, 1942. Center for Educational Telecommunications. 15 April, 2002. <http://www.cetel.org/1942_9066.html>. Seattle Council of Churches. Relocation of Japanese-Americans. May, 1943. 15 April, 2002 <http://www.lib.washington.edu/exhibits/harmony/Documents/wrapam.html>.

Learning Strategies and Information-Processing Development Essay

Learning can be simply defined as the process that leads to relatively permanent change in behavior or potential change in a person’s behavior. Learning makes one change the way they perceive the environment, react to stimuli and interact. Cognitive psychology is a very important branch of modern psychology. The main focus of this approach is the memory-how information is stored and retrieved. Several theories have been developed with regard to this subject such as the stage theory (Atkinson & Shriffin, 1968). The stage theory model is widely accepted since it proposes that information is processed and stored in three sequential stages i.e. â€Å"the sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory† (Atkinson & Shriffin, 1968, p. 90). In addition to this model other accepted theories include â€Å"levels-of-processing† theory proposed by Craik and Lockhart (1972), the parallel-distributed processing model and the connectionistic model. This paper examines how attention, memory, recognition and knowledge are related to various learning strategies. In addition, the paper discusses how visual-perceptual, motor and language relate to information processing development. Information processing development As stated in the introduction above, cognitive psychology forms an integral part of the discipline of psychology. The most widely used theory is the stage theory whose focus is on how information is stored in memory. Information is processed in three stages and this is done in a serial and scholastic manner. Another important theory is the â€Å"levels-of-processing† theory whose proposition is that the learner utilizes different levels of explanation as he or she processes in formation. A major advantage of the information-processing strategies is in their explicitness and accuracy in diving complex cognitive functions into distinct elements that can be easily studied. However, when it comes to analyzing cognition into its distinct parts; information processing fails to re-unite them into a general, comprehensive construct. In addition, most information processing tools such as computer models have lost touch with real-life learning experiences (Berk, 2009). Information processing approach towards cognition seeks to explain how the learner (children and adults) operate on the different types of information. Most scholars view the mind as a complex system (a type of computer) through which information flows and is manipulated. General models such as the store model by Atkinson and Shiffrin assume that information is stored in three parts of the brain for processing: â€Å"the sensory register, short-term memory, and long-term memory† (Berk, 2010, para.1). Craik and Lockhart (1972) level-of-processing model assumes that information is transferred from working memory to the long-term memory depending on the level processing. There exist several other information processing developmental models such as the Case’s theory which is a reinterpretation of Piaget’s theory of information processing model. Case views cognitive development as the increase in information processing capacity as a result of brain development which can be linked to more efficient learning strategies. Connectionism on the other hand explains information processing development as a result of learning strategies such as computer-simulated strategies which enhance; inter-connectivity of processing units that are well stratified just like the neurological structure of the brain. Siegler’s using his model of learning strategy choice argues that, learners always generate a number of strategies for problem solving, the more the experience, the more strategies are selected or discarded (Kail & Cavanaugh, 2008). Attention is a critical factor when it comes to human thinking, it dictates the information that will be considered when undertaking a task. Attention is greatly enhanced during early and middle stages of childhood. Thus, improved attention makes one to be more adaptable, selective and organized. Enhanced cognitive reticence and efficacy of attentional learning strategies are pertinent to the fine-tuning of selective attention. The fine tuning of attentional learning strategies takes place in four stages: â€Å"production deficiency, control deficiency, utilization deficiency, and effective strategy use† (para.2). Whenever there is a problem with attention students would develop learning disorders. The argument here is that, when a student is learning a new concept, their attention needs to be focused on the new concept.   If they fail to fully pay their attention, it means that they will have a serious problem with the learning of the new information (Kail & Cavanaugh, 2008). Memory strategies are said to improve with age, as children continue to develop various methods such as, organization, and elaboration. This increases the likelihood of storing information in working memory and its consequential transfer to the long-term knowledge bank. Thus, over childhood stages and even in adolescence, students’ recall steadily improves as knowledge is continually amassed and its organization is improved effectively. Children’s metacognitive abilities usually change from passivity to activity. A more productive view of mental functioning increases with the increase in awareness of information processing strategies, cognitive aptitudes, and task variables. Self-regulation cognitively develops gradually during childhood and adolescence stages. Recently, scholars of information-processing have focused their attention towards academic learning of children (Berk, 2009). Visual-perceptual, motor and language relation to information processing development A visual-perceptual skill is simply the brain’s ability to process information as seen.   Previously, most scholars had assumed that a deficiency in visual-perceptual skills was directly linked to the malfunctioning of the eye.   That is having a poor physical vision or poor muscle control in the eye. However, the presence or absence of physical vision has nothing to do with visual perceptual. Instead, visual perceptual refers to the ability of the brain the receiving of visual information, its interpretation, organization, storage, and transmission Thus, if a student’s brain is not properly storing information, recall will definitely be poor. This directly affects the student’s ability to concentrate and read since he or she has a slow recall of words. The slowing down of recall can also have a negative impact on their mathematical abilities let alone their fluency in speech and reading (Smith 2004). Language and phonological processing abilities are affected by the student’s ability to store, process, and retrieve information.   Usually language and phonological problems are rooted to reading disorders.   Many students with reading disorders have difficulty storing, processing, and retrieving information.   A normal student’s left brain hemisphere becomes dominant when they are carrying out tasks involving language processing (Berk 2009). A student’s motor skills are also an important factor when discussing about learning strategies.   Children will learn from their interaction with the environment; this ability is affected hindered by a child’s motor or verbal skills, a child will learn better when their motor skills are well developed.   This can be observed in a math class.   A conventional practice in the learning of fractions is the use of multiplication.   A student with a problem with their motor skills will have a problem with the use of manipulatives.   Thus they will definitely have it rough when it comes to the learning of fractions (Berk, 2010). Conclusion This paper argues that there exist several other information processing developmental models such as the Case’s theory which is a reinterpretation of Piaget’s theory of information processing model. Case views cognitive development as the increase in information processing capacity as a result of brain development which can be linked to more efficient learning strategies. The most widely used theory is the stage theory whose focus is on how information is stored in memory. Learning strategies such as memory strategies are pertinent to the process of information development. Information processing approach towards cognition explains how the learner operates on various kinds of information. The mind is a complex system (a type of computer) through which information flows and is manipulated. Deficits in information processing skills have negative impacts on a student’s ability to learn effectively. This is attributed to the reason that all learning is relatively cumulative.  Thus, problems in learning should be detected early in enough and solved otherwise; they would get worse with advancement of age.